JEWEL
OF CHINESE MUSLIMS HERITAGE
Qazihan
Masjid, Turpan
Although
situated in the new quarter of Turpan, Qazihan Masjid
was built in 1747.
It underwent a complete renovation of both interior
and exterior in 1983.
(A
PERSONAL ENCOUNTER WITH THE FIRST MOSQUE IN CHINA)
This
is one of a series of articles especially commissioned
by FSTC to report on some Islamic Monuments
and Centres of interest but are not well known to the
wide public. This one is reported by FSTCs special
researcher, Mohammed Khamouch
Long
before I travelled to Asia, my mind was always fascinated
by China and its magical arts. I was
unaware of Chinese Muslim communities and their way
of life since little, if anything, was ever mentioned
about them. I slowly began to learn about the areas
of China where these Muslim communities lived, about
their history, cultural heritage and early mosques which
immensely intrigued me and I could not wait to pay
homage to them.
I
entered the country from the south through Hong Kong
where I visited the Hong Kong Museum which has
numerous Arabic coins, Islamic Burial Tablets dating
back to the Tang and Song Dynasties and a
magnificent model of The Huaisheng Mosque which I was
to visit.
In
order to embark on my spiritual journey and pay respect
to the oldest mosque in the whole of China I
had to obtain another entry visa from the Chinese authorities.
This great mosque is dearly precious to
every Chinese Muslim. It lies in the city Guangzhou
(Canton), located at the north of Zhu Jiang (The Pearl
River) which is the capital of Guangdong Province -
the largest and most important gateway and foreign
trading hub in southern China. From Hong Kong, I was
anxious but thrilled to take the 165km journey
northwest to Guangzhou to visit the mosque.
The
Great Mosque of Guangzhou also known as
Huaisheng Mosque which means Remember the Sage
(A Memorial Mosque to the Holy Prophet) and is also
popularly called the Guangta Mosque which
translates as The Beacon Tower Mosque. Huaisheng
Mosque is located on Guantgta Road (Light Pagoda
Road) which runs eastwards off Renmin Zhonglu.
Prior
to 500 CE and hence before the establishment of Islam,
Arab seafarers had established trade relations
with the Middle Kingdom (China). Arab ships
bravely set off from Basra at the tip of the Arabian
Gulf and
also from the town of Qays (Siraf) in the Persian Gulf.
They sailed the Indian Ocean passing Sarandip (Sri
Lanka) and navigated their way through the Straits of
Malacca which were between the Sumatran and
Malaysian peninsulas en route to the South China Sea.
They established trading posts on the south eastern
coastal ports of Quanzhou and Guangzhou. Some Arabs
had already settled in China and probably
embraced Islam when the first Muslim deputation arrived,
as their families and friends back in Arabia, had
already embraced Islam during the Holy Prophets
revelation (610-32).
Guangzhou
is called Khanfu by the Arabs who later set up a Muslim
quarter which became a centre of
commerce. Guangzhous superior geographical position
made it play an important role as the oldest trading
and international port city in China. Witnessing a series
of historical events, China has become a significant
place in history and one of the fastest growing regions
in the world enjoying unprecedented prosperity.
Whilst
an Islamic state was founded by the Holy Prophet Muhammad,
China was enduring a period of
unification and defence. Early Chinese annals mentioned
Muslim Arabs and called their kingdom al-Madinah
(of Arabia). Islam in Chinese is called Yisilan
Jiao (meaning Pure Religion). A Chinese
official once
described Makkah as being the birthplace of Buddha Ma-hia-wu
(i.e. Holy Prophet Muhammad).
There
are several historical versions relating to the advent
of Islam in China. Some records claim Muslims
first arrived in China in two groups within as many
months from al-Habasha Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
Ethiopia
was the land where some early Muslims first fled in
fear from the persecution of the Quraysh tribe
in Makkah. Among that group of refugees were one of
Prophet Muhammads daughters Ruqayya, her
husband Uthman ibn Affan, Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas and
many other prominent Sahabah (Companions) who
migrated on the advice of the Holy Prophet. They were
successfully granted political asylum by al-Habashi
King Atsmaha Negus in the city of Axum (c.615 CE).
However,
some Sahabah never returned to Arabia. They may have
travelled on in the hope of earning their
livelihood elsewhere and may have eventually reached
China by land or sea during the Sui Dynasty (581-618
CE). Some records relate that Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas
and three other Sahabah sailed to China in c.616
CE from Abyssinia (Ethiopia) with the backing of the
king of Abyssinia. Sad then returned to Arabia,
bringing a copy of the Holy Quran back to Guangzhou
some 21 years later, which appropriately coincides
with the account of Liu Chih who wrote The Life
of the Prophet (12 vols).
One
of the Sahabahs who lived in China is believed to have
died in c.635 CE and was buried in the western
urban part of Hami. His tomb is known as Geys
Mazars and is revered by many in the surrounding
region.
It is in the north western autonomous province of Xinjiang
(Sinkiang) and about 400 miles east of the
latters capital, Urumqi. Xinjiang is four times
the size of Japan, shares its international border with
eight
different nations and is home to the largest indigenous
group of Turkic-speaking Uyghurs. Hence, as well as
being the largest Islamised area of China, Xinjiang
is also of strategic importance geographically.
The
Quran states in unequivocal words that Muhammad
was sent only as a Mercy from God to all peoples
(21:107), and in another verse, We have not sent
thee but as a (Messenger) to all Mankind (34:28).
This
universality of Islam facilitated its acceptance by
people from all races and nations and is amply
demonstrated in China where the indigenous population,
of ethnic varieties of Chinese Muslims today is
greater than the population of many Arab countries including
that of Saudi Arabia.
The
history of Huaisheng Mosque represents centuries of
Islamic culture dating right back to the mid-
seventh century during the Tang Dynasty (618-907)
- the golden age of Chinese history. It
was in this
period, eighteen years after the death of the Holy Prophet,
that Islam - the last of the three great
monotheistic religions - was first introduced to China
by the third Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan (644-656
CE/23-35 AH).
Uthman
was one of the first to embrace Islam and memorize the
Holy Quran. He possessed a mild and
gentle nature and he married Ruqayyah and following
her death, Umm Kulthum (both were daughters of
the Holy Prophet). Consequently he was given the epithet
of Dhu-n-Nurayn (the one with the two lights).
Uthman was highly praised for safeguarding the manuscripts
of the Quran against disputes by ordering its
compilation from the memories of the Companions and
sending copies to the four corners of the Islamic
Empire.
Uthman
sent a delegation to China led by Sad Ibn Abi
Waqqas (d. 674 CE/55 AH) who was a much loved
maternal uncle of the Prophet and one of the most famous
Companions who converted to Islam at the age
of just seventeen. He was a veteran of all the battles
and one of the ten who it is reported that the Holy
Prophet said were assured a place in paradise.
In
Madina, Sad, using his ability in architecture
added an Iwan (an arched hall used by a Persian Emperor)
as a worship area. He later laid the foundation of what
was to be the first Mosque in China where early
Islamic architecture forged a relationship with Chinese
architecture.
According
to the ancient historical records of the Tang
Dynasty, an emissary from the kingdom of al-
Madinah led by Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas and his deputation
of Sahabah, who sailed on a special envoy to China
in c.650 CE, via the Indian Ocean and the China Sea
to the famous port of Guangzhou, thence travelled
overland to Changan (present day Xian) via
what was later known as the Silk Route.
Sad
and his deputation brought presents and were warmly
received at the royal court by the Tang
Emperor Kao-tsung, (r. 650-683) in c.651 CE despite
a recent plea of support against the Arabs forwarded
to the Emperor in that same year by Shah Peroz (the
ruler of Sassanids Persia). The latter was a son of
Yazdegerd who, along with the Byzantines already had
based their embassies in China over a decade
earlier. Together they were the two great powers of
the west. A similar plea made to Emperor Tai Tsung
(r.627-649) against the simultaneous spread of Muslim
forces was refused.
First
news of Islam had already reached the Tang royal
court during the reign of Emperor Tai Tsung when
he was informed by an embassy of the Sassanian king
of Persia, as well as the Byzantiums of the
emergence of the Islamic rule. Both sought protection
from the might of China. Nevertheless, the second
year of Kao-tsungs reign marks the first official
visit by a Muslim ambassador.
The
emperor, after making enquiries about Islam, gave general
approval to the new religion which he
considered to be compatible with the teachings of Confucius.
But he felt that the five daily canonical
prayers and a month of fasting were requirements too
severe for his taste and he did not convert. He
allowed Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas and his delegation
freedom to propagate their faith and expressed his
admiration for Islam which consequently gained a firm
foothold in the country.
Sad
later settled in Guangzhou and built the Huaisheng Mosque
which was an important event in the
history of Islam in China. It is reputedly the oldest
surviving mosque in the whole of China and is over 1300
years old. It survived through several historical events
which inevitably took place outside its door step.
This mosque still stands in excellent condition in modern
Guangzhou after repairs and restorations.
Its
contemporary Da Qingzhen Si (Great Mosque) of Changan
(present day Xian) in Shaanxi Province was
founded in c.742 CE. It is the largest (12,000 sq metres)
and the best early mosque in China and it has
been beautifully preserved as it expanded over the centuries.
The present layout was constructed by the
Ming Dynasty in c.1392 CE, a century before the fall
of Granada, under its (ostensible) founder Hajj Zheng
He who has a stone tablet at the mosque in commemoration
of his generous support, which was provided
by the grateful Emperor.
A
fine model of the Great Mosque with all its surrounding
walls and the magnificent, elegant appearance of
its pavilions and courtyards can be seen at the Hong
Kong Museum placed gracefully besides the model of
the Huaisheng Mosque. I was fortunate to visit the real
mosque last year during Asr prayer, after which I
met the Imam who showed me an old handwritten Quran
and presented me with a white cap.
Walking
to the prayer hall is like sleepwalking through an oriental
oasis confined in a city forbidden for the
impure. A dragon symbol is engraved at the footstep
of the entrance opposite the prayer hall
demonstrating the meeting between Islam and the Chinese
civilisation. All in all it is a dazzling encounter
of
the architecture of Oriental China with that of the
indigenous fashionable taste of Harun ar-Rashid (147-194
AH/764-809 CE) of Baghdad -a newly founded city that
was to become the greatest between
Constantinople and China, fifty years after the time
of Harun.
The
Sheng-You Si (Mosque of the Holy Friend), also known
as the Qingjing Si (Mosque of Purity) and Al-
Sahabah Mosque (Mosque of Companions), was built with
pure granite in 1009 CE during the Northern
Song Dynasty (960-1127). Its architectural design and
style was modelled on the Great Mosque of
Damascus
(709-15) in Syria thus making the pair the oldest extant
Mosques to survive (in original form)
into the twenty-first century.
Qingjing
Mosque is located at Madinat al-Zaytun (Quanzhou)
or, in English, City of Olives (Olive is
a
symbol of peace according to Arab/Muslim tradition)
in Fujian Province, where there are the Sacred Tombs
of two Companions of the Holy Prophet who accompanied
Sad Ibn Abi Waqqass envoy to China. They
are
known to the locals by their Chinese names of Sa-Ke-Zu
and Wu-Ku-Su and Arabs from various countries
come to pay homage.
Zhen-Jiao
Si (Mosque of the True Religion), also known as Feng-Huang
Si (the Phoenix Mosque) in
Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, is believed to date back
from the Tang Dynasty. It has a multi-storied portal,
serving as a minaret and a platform for observing the
moon. The Mosque has a long history and it has been
rebuilt and renovated on a number of occasions over
the centuries. It is much smaller than it used to be,
especially with the widening of the road in 1929, and
it was partly rebuilt in 1953.
The
other ancient Mosque is located in the city of Yangzhou
in Jiangsu Province, once the busiest city of
trade and commerce during the Song Dynasty (960-1280).
Xian-He Si (Mosque of Immortal Crane) is the
oldest and largest in the city and was built in c.1275CE
by Pu-ha-din, a Muslim preacher who was a
sixteenth-generation descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.
Beytulla
Masjid, Yining
This Masjid, completed in the 38th reign year of Qing
Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1773), was China's first Islamic
religious center built with allocations from the imperial
court. It is the largest of its kind in the city. With
many going there to study the Qur'an since its completion,
it is also known as a leading institute of higher Islamic
studies. The decaying Masjid was renovated in 1995,
when the whole building was rebuilt except the entrance
arch. The structure is now located on the corner of
South Jiefang St. and Xinhua St.
According
to Chinese Muslim historians, Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas
died in Guangzhou where he is believed to be
buried. However Arab scholars differ, stating that Sad
died and was buried in Medina amongst other
Companions. One grave definitely exists, while the other
is symbolic, God only knows whether it is in China
or Medina. The message of Islam took root peacefully
in China. The first envoy reached the southeast via
the Zhu Jiang (The Pearl River) and was later followed
by contact via an overland route from the northwest.
Muslim communities are present over a wide geographical
area in China today, including some in the
remote places of Tibet, where I once met Tibetan Muslims
in the middle of nowhere, while on a trek.
Muawiyah
(d.60 AH/680 CE), the sixth Caliph and founder of the
Umayyad Caliphate, was known in China
as Mo-ee and the Chinese closely observed
the progress of the Islamic Empire, noting in the Tang
annals,
when Constantinople was unsuccessfully besieged by the
Muslim armies, between 674 and 679, and they
called the Arabs of that period White Robed Ta-shih.
After the death of Muawiyah in 680, his son Yezid
(r.
680-3) became the new Caliph. He sent Umar, son of Sad
Ibn Abi Waqqas, who was in command of a large army.
A century after the death of the Holy Prophet, the Islamic
Empire extended from the Pyrenees to the
Himalayas and was eventually sharing borders with China
which closely observed the progress of the
Islamic world.
The
Umayyad Dynasty had reached its zenith under the reign
of al-Walid I (705-15) when expansion of the
Islamic empire to the West and the East had achieved
great success. When the first European lands (what
is today Spain and Portugal) was conquered in 711 by
Tariq Ibn Ziad and his army, Islamic rule was
established right up to the Atlantic under the command
of Musa Ibn Nusair. An overland expedition under
Muhammad Ibn Qasim, a nephew and son-in-law of Hajjaj
Ibn Yusuf,the governor of Iraq, was advancing
through southern Persia and Baluchistan and reaching
the lower Indus Valley.
Qutaiba
Ibn Muslim was appointed governor of Khurasan by Hajjaj
and he launched a series of successful
military campaigns, gaining control over Transoxiana
in 94-5/712-3 where many Persians and Turkish
inhabitants embraced Islam. Kashgar, a frontier town
of China, was also raided and Qutaiba swore to take
control over China but his demands were deflected by
a friendly approach which included a symbolic gift by
the provincial governor to release him from his solemn
oath.
According
to the famous historian al-Tabari (225-310 AH/839-923
CE), in 96/714 there was a brief
encounter with a Ta-shih delegation which
brought precious gifts to Emperor Hsuan Tsung . The
envoy
refused to perform the traditional ko tou
(bow) and when asked why by the bemused Emperor, the
reply
was in my country we only bow to God (Tian
shen). The Emperor was angered and wanted to kill the
envoy but a possible reminder of Qutaiba (who was besieging
Feghana) by one of the ministers must have
triggered the Emperors mind to recall a Chinese
proverb that says: Exchange of jade and silk is
better
than of swords in a battlefield.
In
the battle of Talas (Central Asia) in 751, under the
command of Ziyad Ibn Salih, the Chinese had
suffered a decisive defeat by the Arabs who captured
some prisoners, two of whom knew the art of papermaking
and were later rewarded and released. Parchment or papyrus
was generally used by the Arabs until
the introduction of paper-making technology in Samarqand.
The first paper mill was established in Baghdad
thus producing a major breakthrough in education and
science which were high priorities.
Tu
Huan (c.751-762), a Chinese clerical official who accompanied
the ill-fated Chinese army in the battle of
Talas under the command of Kao Hsien Chee, was held
prisoner for a decade and travelled to Samarqand,
Tashkent, northern Iran, Iraq and Syria before sailing
back to Guangzhou from the Arabian Gulf. He wrote a
book entitled Jing Hsing Chee (Where I Travelled)
and accurately recorded the practice and fundamental
belief of Islam, making it one of the earliest works
of Islam in China.
One
year after the death of the Amir al-Muminin, Abu-l-Abbas
as-Saffah (r. 749-54), known in China as A-
Bo-Lo-Ba, the foe became a friend of A-pucha-fo
- the second Abbasid Caliph Abu Jafar al-Mansur (r.
754-75). The Emperor Su Tsung appealed for help
in regaining control of his capital Changan from
the
treacherous commander, An Lu-Shan who was a multi linguist
Tarter and governor of Pinglu and who had
the wildest of ambitions and had rebelled against the
Emperor.
An
opportunity occurred for Islamic influence to penetrate
into the heart of China when al-Mansur
responded by sending 4,000 warriors who recaptured the
city and were well rewarded by the Emperor.
Some men never returned to their native lands and were
known as Ta-shihs. They married with Chinese
women, subsequently establishing Muslim communities
in Western China, descendants of which are the
progenitors of the Hui (meaning return)
nationality.
The
illustrious Ming Admiral Muhammad Ma Ho, Zheng He (1371-1433),
his immediate lieutenant Ma Huan
(Muhammad Hassan), chronicler Fei Hsin and his Arabic
interpreter Hassan, a former Imam (exemplar) of
Xian, were among these descendents. Zheng He courageously
led treasure-ship fleets and expeditions to
many countries, establishing good diplomatic, political
and social relations between governments.
On
the seventh expedition (1431-33), under the reign of
Emperor Xuan De (1426-1435), Zheng He sailed
with over 100 ships and 27,550 men. They visited several
countries including Arabia and especially Makkah
where he and some of his naval officers paid homage
to al-Bayt al-Haram (Holy Kabah). Belonging to
a
very old pious Muslim family, his father and grandfather
were both Hajjis who, unlike Zheng, travelled for
months on horseback and camel, reaching their destination
stops with great difficulty before finally
reaching Makkah.
Heroically
admired by many, he earned the title of San Pao Kung
Our Master of the Three Jewels from the
early Chinese settlers of Southeast Asia, wherein a
Mosque named after Zheng He has been erected in
Surabaya to mark the many years of trade and (Islamic)
religious contact.
Arab
merchants at this time commissioned mosques, headed
by an ahong (from the Persian akhun,
meaning religious leader) in various parts of China
and expressed their commitment to Islam by building
symbolic characteristics into their communities, called
Fan Fang foreign quarters clustered around
a mosque.
Arabs and Persians, who became permanent residents in
the cities previously mentioned, were referred to as
Fanke which means guests from the outlying
regions.
They
were allowed to marry and they had children who became
known as Tusheng Fanke (native-born
guests). The latter were better known as Hui Hui
as first noted in the literature of the Northern Song
Dynasty (960-1127). Representing the second largest
of all ethnic minorities living in China today, they
trace their descent from the Arabs and Persians, whom
undoubtedly gained high command of the Chinese
idiom.
In
China, Muslim places of worship have not incorporated
the Arabic name of Masjid (Mosque) instead
an
alternative name such as Qing Zhen Si (Temple
of Purity and Truth) is used. Si (Temple)
is used for
Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian places of worship. Hence
most early Mosque exterior building structures,
architecturally resembled that of a temple.
Followers
of traditional Islam were known as Gedimu
(from the Arabic Qadeem which translates as old)
and they were exposed to various teachings described
as lao jiao (old religious teaching) such
as
Qadiriyyah, a famous order founded by Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani
(d.56/1166) in Baghdad. A group of which was
founded in China by Hilal al-Din, Qin Jingyi (c.1656-1719).
He received his early training from Khoja Abd
Alla, a twenty-ninth-generation descendant of the Holy
Prophet, who according to Chinese Sufi records
arrived in at the port of Guangzhou in c.1674 and preached
in many other cities before his eventual death
in c.1689.
Hilal
al-Din, known among the Hui as Daozu (Grand
Master Qi is entombed at Linxia which was once an
important stop on the silk road between Lanzhou and
Yang Guan. Another Gedimu is the Naqshabandiyyah
-
the conspicuous Sufi order founded by Muhammad Naqshaband
of Bukhara (717-791/1317-1389).
New teachings arrived in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries to replace the old ones referred
to as xin xin jiao: The Yihewani (al-Ikhwan
al-Muslimun) Muslim Brotherhood movement was brought
by
annual pilgrims to Makkah, and the Wahhabis, a dominant
sect in Saudi Arabia and Qatar which had
established footholds in many countries including Africa,
India and China. Devotees of this sect named after
its founder Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1115-1201 AH/1703-1787
CE).
On
12th February 1949, some six months before the official
inauguration of the Peoples Republic of China,
the luminary Imam Hassan al-Banna (c.1906-1949) was
martyred in the heart of Cairo. The eminent
founder of al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun (Muslim Brotherhood),
his mission spread globally from the local coffeehouse
in Egypt to downtown Muslim quarters of China attracting
more urban intellectuals and sustaining a
strong hold throughout China today.
Such
impact is clearly visible in current Chinese Mosque
architecture, where traditional Gedimu Chinese-
style Mosques, which resemble that of Confucian temples,
are rejected by the Yihewanis (al-Ikhwan al-
Muslimun) who are of an Arabist nature. They prefer
more plain white Arab-style (iconography) mosques
instead, with a young Imam for leading the congregational
prayers similar to the Imam of a Mosque I have
visited in Luoyang who may possibly have graduated from
al-Azhar University where some thirty three Hui
students enrolled in c.1939.
Islamic
civilization steadily spread - reaching the heart of
every Chinese Muslim, creating a fascinating
mosaic of ethnic neighbourhoods within the Dragons
Den. Once on my return trip from the Huang He
(Yellow River), also called Chinas Sorrow and
the Worlds Muddiest River, a few miles north of
Kaifeng in
Henan Province, I spotted an old cottage remotely located
with a small white flag flying from a tree branch,
inscribed in Arabic with a Quranic verse to keep
out evil spirits. Immediately it drew my attention as
this
was similar to what happened in many parts of the Muslim
world.
Huaisheng
Mosque embraces a unique ingenious architectural setting
by successfully integrating Islamic
architectural renderings with elements of the Tang
architectural style, producing an aura of Islamic-Chinese
symmetrical architectural charm, free from ornamentation
and idolatry.
The
mosque gave birth to a new chapter in the field of architecture
in one of Chinas most illustrious
periods of history where efficient administrative system
developed, printing appeared for the first time,
custom and philosophy became even more sophisticated
and creative arts flourished, producing a highly
cosmopolitan empire.
Huaisheng
Mosque was rebuilt in 1350 during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)
under the rule of Zhizhen
(1341-1368) and again during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)
under the rule of Emperor Kangzi. In 1695 the
mosque was destroyed by fire and was rebuilt again on
the same original site. A century-old photograph of
the Mosque which I was fortunate to see displays a semblance
of much of what we see today except for
the uncultivated gardens which are in dire need of an
aspiring gardener.
A
decade or so after the modernization of Guangzhou city
which began in the early 1920s, where the
remainder of the old city wall was demolished, the present
prayer hall has undergone a complete
reconstruction in 1935 using reinforced concrete. The
mosque complex can accommodate one thousand
worshipers and occupies an area of 2,966 square meters
lying on a north-south axis.
The
building comprises of a main gate with a green awning
facing south which is in accordance with
Chinese tradition. As you enter through a narrow courtyard
there is another gateway with a red plaque
inscribed in four Chinese characters which translates
as Religion that holds in great esteem the teachings
brought from the Western Region. There are beautiful
green plants on each side of the arched entrance.
Another arched gateway with a two storied portal built
in the seventeenth century, makes it graceful to
pass through. Its called the Moon Pavilion and
leads through to a wonderfully set courtyard taking
you to
the prayer hall.
Entering
the courtyard through the arched entrance of the Moon
Pavilion, one instantly leaves behind the
Chinese world for the Sino-Moorish. You begin to feel
the calmness, spatial beauty and quiet atmosphere as
if you were going back in time, in contrast to the hustle
and bustle of the world one has just left. One
begins to feel elevated by the fragrant smell of the
flowers in the gardens and intrigued by such illustrious
techniques used to venerate this building.
Instead
of a dome, a gambrel (mansard) roof with upswept eaves
and undulating gables is used with a
small stupica (small stupa) placed in the middle with
a beautiful set of beams, spaciously designed with
several columns symmetrically divided with a red bricked
arch entrance. Wooden sliding doors with glass
patterned shapes characterized and organized into coherent
patterns of form by its monumental exterior
and Chinese classical colonnades mark the entrance.
Several long wooden seats and chairs are situated
around the colonnades available for worshipers to sit
in between or after prayers.
The
culmination of this Qing Zhen Si (Temple of Purity and
Truth), known to the local Chinese as a Muslims
place of worship, dominates a historical overview of
when the first Arabs embarked on their journey from
the sands of Arabia to the silk-door steps of the Middle
Kingdom (China).
I
was lost in contemplation for a while, visualizing a
theme of Arab merchants gathering in this very
courtyard, reflecting on their long arduous and hazardous
sea adventure. Thinking of such great men, all of
whom I wish to pay tribute to, verily transported me
back in time, and I was put into a kind of trance as
I
sat down in the cloistered courtyard.
During
the reign of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur, Arab traders
sailed from the ports of al-Basrah and Siraf,
in the months of May and June, enduring between three
to six months of travel to the port of Guangzhou
trading at different stopovers and keeping alert from
pirate attacks and returned during the months of
October and November following seasonal winds. Other
merchants traversed the rough and hostile terrain
from the Central Asian steppe along the Silk Route on
camel caravans, facing constant danger as their
journey progressed to their trading point.
Jaman
Masjid, Hotan. CHINA.
Jaman
Masjid, Hotan. CHINA.
One of the largest Masjid in Hotan, it is situated in
the city's downtown area. The structure was built in
the second reign year of Qing Dynasty Emperor Guangxu
(1875), and renovated in 1997 with a government allocation.
Intellectual
curiosity which was embedded in the Islamic doctrine
led early prominent Muslim travellers like
Ibn Wahhab of al-Basrah to arrive in the port of Khanfu
(Guangzhou) around c.815 CE, thence to
Changan (Xian) where he attended an audience
with the Emperor, wrote a vivid account on the city
of
Changan and the imperial household. Changan
during the Tang Dynasty and Baghdad which reached
its
zenith during the Abbasid Caliphate, were the most powerful
and largest cities in the world.
Sulaiman
al-Tajir (the Merchant), made numerous voyages to India
and China from his native town of the
port of Siraf where traders arriving from China first
offloaded goods before distribution to al-Basrah and
Baghdad
via transportation vessels. He wrote about his long
daring voyages in c.850 CE, describing the
piracy and extreme weather en route to the port of Khanfu
(Guangzhou) where extortionate port duties
were charged on goods and finger-prints were used as
signatures.
The
Muslim community of Guangzhou that Sulaiman visited
had their own mosques, bazaars and a Qadi
(judge), appointed by the emperor who kept order and
applied, not Chinese, but Shariah law (canonical
law of Islam) amongst his co-religionists, and delivered
the Friday (Khutbah) sermon to the faithful.
Stories
of such adventures, which contain popular tales and
scientific descriptions noted by early Arab
travellers to China are recorded in twelfth-century
Arabic manuscript entitled Akhbar al-Sin
(Reports of
China) wal Hind (Reports of India) relating
stories of two Arab travellers. Tales of such adventurous
voyages are compiled in the huge collection known as
One Thousand and One Nights` of which the
legendary Sindbad the Sailor and Prince
Alladin are the most famous tales.
The
Muslim chronicler Abu Zaid Hassan al-Sirafi reported
the massacre of some 120,000 Arabs, Christians,
Jews and Zoroastrians that took place in Guangzhou and
edited the account of Sulaiman al-Tajir in c.851
CE. He was a friend of the famous Abul-Hasan al-Masudi
(d.345/956) who was an outstanding
encyclopaedic figure, historian and scientist of Islam
as well as a world traveller who sailed through the
China Sea and wrote valuable observations about China
in his Meadows of Gold and Mines of Precious
Gems. One of the few depictions of Arab shipping
where sail, oars and the rudder were used can be seen
in the 13th century manuscript of al-Hariris Maqdamat
which did not reach the Christian Mediterranean until
several centuries later.
Within
the prosperous maritime network, merchants brought valuable
and distinctive commodities such as
silk, jade, porcelain, lapis lazuli, spices and fruits
which were carried on the backs of camels. Silk was
one
of many precious goods that were exchanged between East
and West due to the prosperous maritime
network managed by Arabs who were acting as intermediaries
between China, India and the Middle East.
Caravans
of students, scholars, ambassadors, monks, soldiers,
craftsmen and traders journeyed through
the arteries of this magnificent international trade
route which ran over the roof of the world serving the
Eurasian civilizations for eighteen centuries. They
would halt at stops on the road and at well-known
bazaars
where Arab and Persian traders exchanged goods. Traders
also gathered contributions to build
mosques, many of which are of historical importance
and are well preserved to this day. Men of the pen
who treaded these foot paths acquired knowledge and
spread Islam from the interior of China passing the
Great Wall through to Central Asia.
The
magnificent Niujie Mosque of Khan-Baliq (present day
Beijing) is a great example. It was established by
an Arabian scholar Nasir al-Din who served as an official
in the Liao Dynasty (907-1125). Two Arabs who
came to China during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) and
served as Imams now rest beside the Mosque
where their tomb stones can be seen today. Proof of
commitment to this graceful land continues today by
the bearers of this religion.
Huaisheng
Mosque is austere and simple when compared with its
younger sister several thousand miles
away in al-Andalus (Spain) where La Mezquita
- The Friday Mosque of Qurtabah (Cordoba). The latter
mosque is famously known for its impressive interlocking
multi-lobed arches and pink and white stripped
arches. Its foundation had been laid down in 785 CE
(after its purchase from the Christians) by Abd ar-
Rahman I (756-88) who successfully sustained both the
Umayyad Dynasty and its intricate arts in the West.
The
interior designs of the Da Qingzhen Si (Great Mosque)
of Xian built in 742 CE and the Niujie Mosque
built in 996 demonstrate that unique ancient Islamic
and Chinese classical architecture were merged to
produce a vivid astonishing effect and embellishment.
On the other hand the prayer hall of Huaisheng
Mosque reflects the preference of simplicity and tranquility.
There stands a low Minbar (pulpit) beside the
Mihrab (niche facing Makkah) and a naturally shaped
banister by the Minbar (pulpit) for the Imam to hold
on to.
Two
pillars decorated with nine bands of triangular Quranic
inscriptions are located symmetrically
supporting the low part of the ceiling which magnificently
displays the Quranic verse, The religion
before
Allah is Islam (submission to his will) (Al-Imran
18-19) and is written in an Sino-Arabic style. A few
copies
of the Quran are neatly placed on a table beside
the Mihrab on the left-hand side.
The
Mosque currently boasts over 40 prayer mats inscripted
with Arabic and Chinese dating back to the
Tang Dynasty.
The
Guangta Tower is a freestanding minaret,
of 36.30 m (119 ft) high. It is a cylindrical, smooth-textured
minaret made from grey masonry with a balcony that served
as a ritual tower for the Muezzin to call the
worshipers to prayer. Another solid cylindrical tower
is surmounted above the ringed balcony with a base
dome decorated with two tiers of dougong.
There is an elongated pointed tip with a metal rod supporting
a crescent moon-shaped design. There are also windows
to allow air and light onto the spiral staircase
through which the Muezzin can access the balcony.
During
the Tang and Song Dynasties, when the bank of
the Zhu Jiang (The Pearl River) was close to the
minaret, sailors would occasionally climb the minaret
to observe the weather conditions prior to sailing.
This
minaret has served its purpose well and famously became
known as the Beacon Tower and the citys
principal landmark. A lamp was lit atop the minaret
and served as a beacon for navigation that guided
boats along the Zhu Jiang River during the night. Its
height dominated the citys skyline before the
contruction
of high-rise buildings and dwarfed everything allowing
for a birds eye view of the city. The luminous
tower also had a weathervane, placed on its roof indicating
the direction of the wind.
Its
majestic presence played a huge role at the start of
the maritime silk road. Before reaching
the
mainland on the Silk Road, reaching this port must have
been a tremendous achievement for many anxious
merchants.
Another
mosque in Galle, off the southern coast of what Arabs
traders called Sarandib, i.e Sri Lanka, is
called the Jaama Al-Khairat or The Galle
Lighthouse Mosque. The light tower minaret is free-standing
next
to a beautiful palm tree and is situated close to the
sea front where it is currently geared up to serve
incoming navigations. The mosque is like a small fortress-like
colonial two-storied building: white washed,
symmetrically square domed twin-towered facade, crowned
with a shaped-gable in the middle and a
crescent-shaped tail placed above.
The
city of al-Zaytun which was the starting point of the
Maritime Silk Route was well noted by Al-Idrissi
who was born in Ceuta (492-576 AH/1099-1180 CE). He
was a famous Moroccan geographer who, in 1154
CE, wrote in his book al-Kitab ar-Rujari (Book of Roger)
a most elaborate description of the world. It
formed the basis of European knowledge in the field
at the time. He wrote about the commodities carried
by Chinese ships such as leather, swords and iron and
various textiles including silk which were bound for
Aden. He described Hangzhous popular glassware
and rated Zaytuns silk as the best.
By
the Song Dynasty (960-1279) trade was booming and many
Arab and Persian merchants flocked to port
of Guangzhou where the office of the Director General
of Shipping was constantly under Muslim
management, due to their law-abidingness and self-disciplined
nature. Abul-Abbas al-Hijazi, a prosperous
twelfth-century merchant who spent many years in China,
had seven sons whom he posted in seven
different commercial centres from his base in Yemen
thus establishing a successful trading network after
the loss of all but one of his twelve ships in the Indian
Ocean.
Domination
of trade from the Far East and East Africa into the
Red Sea, was in the hand of the Karamis of
Aden. They were one of the greatest trading families
of all time and were brimming with success from
agencies as far as the ports of China and earning the
support of the munificent Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (532589
AH/1138-1193 CE) - a hero, honoured by Muslims and Christians
alike, who freed Jerusalem in c.1187
and ended its eighty eight year occupation by the Crusaders.
In
1292 the Venetian merchant, Marco Polo (1254-1324) described
al-Zaytun and Alexandria of Egypt as
one of the two greatest ports in the world. He also
found a flourishing Arab merchant community which he
associated with the conspicuous Muslim presence in various
areas of China. On his way from China in 1288
and 1293, he visited the port of Kayal in India which
was full of ships from Arabia and China. He also
mentioned seeing a large number of Arabian and Persian
horses imported by sea into south India.
Hajji
Ibn battuta (1304-1369) was a noted explorer and a traveler
who was born in Tangiers, Morocco into
a family of judges during the Marinid Dynasty (1196-1511).
He studied Islamic theology but little did his
family know about his long journey at the age of 21
to perform Hajj at Makkah would take one and a half
years and from which he would not return to his native
town for nearly three decades.
He
served as a Qadi (judge) for eight years in the Sultanate
of India under Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq
(1326-51) before he was summoned as head of a mission
to China in 1341 as an ambassador to meet the
most powerful ruler in the world, the Mongol Emperor
of China.
The
life-threatening adventure began just as he left Delhi
where he was taken prisoner and hunted for
eight days as a fugitive before ending up at the shores
of Calicut with nothing but the clothes he wore and
a prayer mat. He was blessed to be alive. He continued
his journey to China via the Maldives where he
became a chief judge - without the intention of becoming
one - and married into the royal family.
He
then set sail from Sri Lanka when his ship nearly sank
in a storm. He was rescued by another ship which
was attacked by pirates who stole all his provisions
and the precious stones given to him by the King of
Ceylon. He again ended up in Calicut with no coverings
but for his trousers. He set sail once more, briefly
stopping at the Maldives to see his two years old son
for the first time, then boarded a Chinese junk to
China via Chittagong (the main port of Bangladesh) and
the Muslim Kingdom of Samudra (Sumatra,
Indonesia) before resuming his role as ambassador when
he arrived at the port of al-Zaytun in 1345.
My
first journey to China took the form of a boat ferry
from Inchon, South Korea to north Chinas
largest
port city of Tianjin, nicknamed Shanghai of the
North, where a wellknown and sizeable Hui
village of
Tianmu lies situated on the northern citys suburbs.
It took over thirty horrific hours and nervous worries
of
what will happen once I finally reach China.
Ibn
Battuta, on the other hand, considered China to be the
safest and most regulated of all countries in the
world for a traveller and declared that of all people
the Chinese were the most skilful in the arts and
possessed greatest mastery of them, hence his journey
to reach China.
He
described al-Zaytun as housing one of the largest ports
in the world with about a hundred junks that
could not be counted for multitude. Every city had a
separate Muslim quarter where merchants and their
families lived in an honoured and respected manner with
their own mosques, hospitals and bazaars. The
Qadi Fanzhang (judge) of the Muslims, the
Sheikh al-Islam and the leader of the merchants all
came to
meet Ibn Battuta with flags, drums, trumpets and musicians.
He
was invited and entertained by some immensely wealthy
Muslim merchants including the family of
Uthman Ibn Affan of Egypt. He was well received in every
city as guest of honour on his way to Beijing only to
be disappointed to find the Emperor absent from the
capital. He returned back to al-Zaytun before
sailing back to his native land in Shaban 750
(13th November 1349).
On
the morning of Monday 24th June 1996, I arrived at Guangta
Road from Shamian Dao (sand surface
island) to pay homage to the Huaisheng Mosque for the
first time. Entering the Mosque felt like going back
in time. It was before Az-zuhr prayer and the prayer
hall was totally empty. I begun by performing two
Rakaat in respect of the House of God and read
a few Suras of the Holy Quran, before exploring
the
mosque. After which I began to contemplate and marvel
at the wonders of this precious place, this House
of God.
I
thought about all the Muslim envoys that had come to
China, resided here and who prayed in this very
prayer hall. They were Muslim merchants who traded here
but never returned to their home land. Ibn
Battuta (1304-1369) journeyed to this far away land
and is believed to have prayed in this very Mosque.
He
has inspired me to tread onto this soil some 600 years
later.
Allahu
Akbar - Allahu Akbar (God is great), the adhan
(call to prayer) was chanted by the Muezzin
summoning the faithful to prayer. I felt elation at
hearing the adhan, voiced in Arabic and blended with
Chinese flavour hence making it even more pleasant to
hear. My first congregation prayer with my Chinese
Muslim brothers at Huaisheng Mosque was led by Hajji
Muhammad Rashid Yang Tang (Imam and vice
president of the Mosque).
Chinese
Muslims, like those I have met in Central Asia and the
Indian sub-continent, all wear white caps
especially before Salah (prayer).
This
is due to the adherence to the Hanafi school of
thought, which has the largest following amongst
the
Muslim community. It was founded by Abu Hanifa (81-150
AH /700-767 CE), a great Persian jurist of Kufah
where he taught religious science and traded in Chinese
silk, a popular commodity which made its first
appearance in Europe due to the Arabs who spun the wheel
of silk-weaving, interlacing Sicily and Spain
with their knowledge of silk manufacture and production
of textiles.
Abu
Yusuf, a follower of the late Abu Hanifa, became a supreme
Qadi (judge) under the brilliant and
luxurious reign of the fifth Abbasid Caliph Harun ar-Rashid
(147-194 AH/764-809 CE), better known in
China at the time as A-lun. Abbasids emissaries known
as the Black Robed Ta-shih, also known in
Byzantium,
exchanged precious gifts on several visits with the
Chinese Emperors thus improving and
forging better future relations.
Chinese
Muslims established good communication links within
the Muslim Ummah (community) and updates
of all current issues including that of Muslim Ulama
(scholars) of jurisprudence were recognised.
Ibn
Taymiyah (661-728 AH /1263-1328 CE), a well known jurist,
was born one year before the Mongols
made Beijing their capital in 1264 after China had been
conquered by Kublai Khan who established the
Yuan Dynasty (first) following the footsteps
of Genghis Khan. Ibn Taymiyah was admired for his
intellectual and physical prowess which he used to confront
the Mongol chief Il-Khan Ghazan. He later
engaged in jihad against the Mongols, winning a glorious
victory for the Syrian-Egyptian army.
While
the eminent globetrotter Ibn Battuta was leading a peripatetic
existence in Damascus, he attended a
Friday Jumah prayer conducted by Ibn Taymiyah
whom he describes, as a man of great ability and
wide
learning. His fame and influence extended beyond
the boundaries of Egypt and Syria and even into China
where funeral prayers in absentia were performed after
he died by Chinese Muslims.
Hand
written Qurans remain in existence in China today,
preciously handed over from one generation to
the next, the oldest of which dates back to the eighth
century and was brought by the first Arabs. The
famous calligrapher Ibn al-Bawwab (d-1022 or 1032),
inventor of the muhaqqaq style, himself skilfully
handwrote 64 copies of the Quran, one of which
was written in Rihani script and kept at Lalei Mosque
in
Istanbul.
The
earliest translation of the Holy Quran in Chinese
dates back to the eighteenth century. However one of
the first known translations was made in parts before
the twentieth century by Sheikh Liu Che. The second
is by Sheikh Ma Fu Chu who translated twenty Juz before
he passed away, five of which were published
after c.1927 by the Muslim Cultural Association in Shanghai.
The complete Chinese translation of the Quran
was composed from a Japanese translation based on that
of Rodwell in c.1927 by Mr.Lee Tiek Tsing who
embraced Islam after completing his translation.
The
most popular Chinese (translation) version of the holy
Quran was made by the famous Sheikh Ilyas
Wang Ching Cha in c.1928 with the assistance of
the following Arabic scholars: Sheikh A. Rahim Ma Sun
Ting, Muhammad Ma Shang Ting, Amir Mi Huang Chang, Ali
Chao Chen Wu, Abu Bakr Yang Hsi Ju, Ibrahim
Chen Cheng Kia and Yusuf Ying Po Ching. They received
generous financial support from many including
Muhammad Chao Wen Fu. In China today, the Holy Quran
can be found in as many as eight different
translations in the Chinese language as well as in Uygur
and other Turkic languages.
After
the prayer, I was introduced to the Imam Haji Rashid
who, once he found out I was from Morocco,
began to tell me about Ibn Battuta and his travels to
southern China. Haji Rashid also introduced me to Mr
Hassan who was the director of the mosque; both offered
assistance when I needed it. I wanted to visit the
Muslim Burial place where Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas (RA)
was entombed. Idris, an employee of the mosque,
called a taxi and we went to the cemetery which is located
on Guihua Ridge near the orchard garden. We
went in to the cemeterys courtyard and passed
by the religious services hall.
The
cemetery is surrounded by walls and has a courtyard
with a square pond in the middle surrounded by
various green plants and some flowers against a backdrop
of a bright red pavilion with two locked doors
symmetrically placed and a gate in the middle leading
to the cemetery. The pavilion opens onto a straight
path in the middle of the burial ground surrounded by
a 3 ft high wall on each side. Cylindrical stone graves
with Chinese and Arabic scriptures can be seen from
either side as you walk along the path to the grave
of
Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas (RA). The graves are neatly
aligned facing Qibla in Makkah.
Jame Masjid, Kurle. CHINA.
Jame Masjid was erected in 1961 on Southern Tuanjie
St., Kurle.
It is the largest in the city, and the most influential
one in the prefecture
Unlike
a century ago, the mausoleum stood noticeably on its
own like a miniature fort. As an architectural
structure and the first of its kind ever to be erected
in a distant land such as China, its roots stemmed from
Arabia, bringing wisdom and prosperity to a nation as
great as China.
The
mausoleum of Sad Ibn Abi Waqqas, which lies at
the very end of the cemetery, is built like an ancient
temple with a beamed roof and a thick wall circling
the grave with a plaque inscribed in Arabic that
Roudat Abi Waqqas which means Grave
of Abi Waqqas. Idris and I took off our shoes
and went in to
pay our respect to this great Companion who, by the
will of God, helped spark a new life in the hearts of
many Muslims in this great country. It was a moment
of great reflection.
Since
the founding of the Peoples Republic in 1949,
both Huaisheng Mosque and The Ancient Tomb at the
Muslim Cemetery have been listed as historical cultural
relics and are now under state protection. This is a
historic testimonial of the friendship between the Chinese
and Arabs.
Having
paid homage to The Huaisheng Mosque and the Muslim Cemetery,
it was now time to return. I
made my journey back to Hong Kong via Macau to visit
another Mosque at Ramal Mouros Road and the
Macau Museum. I arrived in Hong Kong on Thursday 27th
June 1996, to prepare myself before my flight to Bangkok.
I attended Isha prayer at the Kowloon Mosque and Islamic
Centre which reminded me very much
of the London Islamic Cultural Centre as it is a place
where you can meet Muslims from all over the world.
I
found the museum to be amazingly interesting with its
exterior designed like a ship, housing an
astonishing display of artifacts, models of boats and
maritime activity which centered on the China Sea.
There are four individual theoretical themes which the
museum is divided into, one of which stunned me as
I confronted a particular map on display by the famous
Moroccan geographer of the entire Middle Ages, al-
Idrisi. It made me feel proud and homesick. There
are various models of Chinese traditional vessels
including a few models of Arab boats that once plied
the oceans sailing towards the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River).
Zheng
He (1371-1433), Chinas most celebrated navigator
who constructed massive ships and led Chinese
armadas in his magnificent voyages, visited more than
thirty countries during his seven maritime
expeditions. A special feature at the museum was of
his adventures, marking him as a royal Hero
in the
history of navigation. He ventured the oceans on board
a giant flagship which dwarfed Christopher
Columbuss ship and he discovered America 70 years
earlier. This was almost a century before Vasco da
Gama, while searching for a sea route to India in 1498,
was fortunate to find the most illustrious Arab
navigator Ahmed Ibn Majid, who famously compiled an
invaluable seamen guide, The Advantages of
Knowing the Sciences of the Sea.
Master
Ahmed travelled to the land of the Tiger and Elephant
on several occasions. With half a century
experience of navigation under his belt and in possession
of maritime instruments and maps never before
seen by Europeans, he easily guided the Portuguese flagship
from Malindi, below the Horn of East Africa,
thence to the shores of South Indian (Malabar) coast.
Completing
a full knot, from where my journey first began, I boarded
a jetfoil from Macau, en route to what
used to be the old Maritime Silk Route.
When Arab merchants sailed pass what is now Hong Kong,
it must
have been just a rock passed unnoticed, barely signalling
a stop for the merchants while navigating through
to the mouth of Zhu Jiang (Pearl River). Today it is
anomalous with high rise office buildings and luxurious
hotels greeting one another by ferry arrivals or below
sea level via a fast train.
While
speeding back to Hong Kong on a jetfoil, we passed by
a Chinese junk sailing back to Hong Kong
harbour. I had long hoped to see such a thrilling moment
-a Chinese junk in action, just like the model
display I had just seen at the museum boasting its versatility
and superior advanced (unchanged) design to
any other ship of its time.
I
was staying opposite the Mosque at the Chunking Mansions.
A popular place which accommodates all the
foreign residents from places such as India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Africa and the Middle East who all live
together in one big building which consist of shops,
restaurants and guest houses snugly placed under one
giant silk umbrella just as we once were in al-Zaytun.
This
created a modern centralized vessel, i.e.
Chunking Mansions, docked at the Golden
Mile (Nathan
Road) where many modern Muslim merchants of many nationalities
purchase all their required goods such
as jade, ivory and electrical gadgets before setting
off and travelling faster than our predecessors through
the means of air travel to trade in different cities
of the world.
Immediately
after Isha prayer ended, four very old frail gentlemen
from Bangladesh stood up and one of
them had a message. The men asked if some of us would
like to sit for a few minutes to discuss their
planned mission. Most of us agreed and sat in four separate
circles where the talk began. I was immensely
impressed with the gentlemens courage and firmness
and unflinching honesty. Their mission was to travel
to Guangzhou at the crack of dawn after Fajr prayer
to visit The Huaisheng Mosque for the Friday Jummah
prayer where a planned lecture to Muslims of Guangzhou
was to be given.
Soon
after, I left the mosque and met two Algerian merchants
dressed in loose white clothing who were on
a business trip to China. They reminded me of the old
Arab merchants setting sail for China once more. The
merchants from Algeria together with the four gentlemen
from Bangladesh on their mission to The
Huaisheng Mosque make time seem like it has stood still.
Kucha
Masjid, Kucha. CHINA.
The
second largest Masjid in Xinjiang, the Kucha Mosque
is located on the east side of Kucha County. Kucha Masjid,
Kucha. The second largest Masjid in Xinjiang, the Kucha
Masjid is located on the east side of Kucha County.
Author:
Mohammed Khamouch
Chief Editor: Lamaan Ball
Sub Editor: Rumeana Jahangir
Production: Aasiya Alla
Release Date: June 2005
Publication ID: 4090
Copyright: © FSTC Limited, 2005
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